Snowy Owl Facts

Snowy owls (Bubo scandiacus) are the heaviest owls in the United States. They are notable for their striking white plumage and their extreme northerly range which includes tundra habitat throughout Alaska, Canada, and Eurasia. While they are relatively rare, they are often spotted in winter when they hunt in windswept fields or dunes. Fast Facts: Snowy Owl Scientific Name: Bubo scandiacusCommon Names: Arctic owls, great white owls, white owls, Harfangs, American snowy owls, snowy owls, ghost owls, tundra ghosts, ookpiks, ermine owls, Scandinavian nightbirds, and highland tundra owlsBasic Animal Group:  BirdSize: Body: 20 to 28 inches; wingspan: 4.2 to 4.8 feetWeight: 3.5–6.5 poundsLifespan: 10 yearsDiet:  CarnivoreHabitat:  Northern United States, parts of Canada; migration takes them to parts of Europe and AsiaPopulation:  200,000Conservation  Status:  Vulnerable   Description The plumage of an adult male snowy owl is mostly white with few dark markings. Females and young owls have a sprinkling of darker feathers that form spots or bars over their wings, breast, upper parts and the back of their head. This speckling offers superb camouflage and enables juveniles and females to blend well with the summertime colors and textures of the tundras vegetation. During the nesting season, females are often are heavily soiled on their underside from sitting on the nest. Snowy owls have bright yellow eyes and a black bill. Vicki Jauron, Babylon and Beyond Photography / Getty Images Habitat and Distribution Snowy owls range from the western Aleutians in Alaska to northeastern Manitoba, northern Quebec, Labrador, and the northern United States. They are primarily tundra birds although they sometimes also inhabit grasslands. They venture into forests only on very rare occasions, if ever. During the winter, snowy owls often move southward. During their migration, they are sometimes seen along coastlines and lake shores. They sometimes stop at airports, possibly because they offer them the wide-open habitat they prefer. During the breeding season, which snowy owls spend in the Arctic, they nest on small rises in the tundra where the female carves out a scrape or shallow depression in the ground in which to lay her eggs. Snowy owls rely on prey populations that fluctuate significantly over time. As a result, snowy owls are nomadic birds and go wherever there are ample food resources at any particular time. During normal years, snowy owls remain in the northernmost parts of Alaska, Canada, and Eurasia. But in seasons when prey is not abundant in the northern stretches of their range, snowy owls move further southward. Occasionally, snowy owls move to regions that are farther south than their normal range. For example, during the years of 1945 through 1946, snow owls made a widespread, coast-to-coast incursion into the southern stretches of Canada and the northern parts of the United States. Then in 1966 and 1967, snowy owls moved deeply into the Pacific Northwest region. These incursions have coincided with cyclic declines in the lemming population. Diet During the breeding season, snowy owls survive on a diet that consists of lemmings and voles. In parts of their range where lemmings and voles are absent, such as the Shetland Islands, snowy owls feed on rabbits or chicks of wading birds. Behavior Unlike most owls, snowy owls are primarily diurnal birds, usually active during the day, from dawn to dusk. Sometimes snowy owls do hunt at night. It is important to remember that within their Arctic range, snowy owls experience long summer days and hunting at night simply isnt an option as there are few or no hours of darkness. The opposite is true in winter when day length shortens and hunting during daylight hours is reduced or eliminated as the sun remains below the horizon for long stretches of time. Outside the breeding season, snowy owls make very few vocalizations. During the breeding season, snowy owls are a bit more vocal. Males make a barking kre or krek-krek call. Females produce a loud whistling or mewling pyee-pyee or prek-prek sound. Snowy owls also produce a low-pitched hoot that carries through the air for long distances and can be heard as much as 10 kilometers away. Other sounds snowy owls make include hissing, bill snapping and a clapping sound believed to be created by clicking the tongue. Reproduction and Offspring Normally, snowy owls lay between five and eight eggs per clutch. But in good years when prey such as lemmings is abundant, they lay as many as 14 eggs per clutch. Female snowy owls lay their 2.2 inch long eggs at two-day intervals so that the young emerge from the egg at different times. Mud-brown hatchlings emerge from their eggs at about the size of a newly-hatched chicken. Hatchlings in the same nest are of differing ages, with some having hatched as much as two weeks apart. Snowy owl chicks weigh only about 45 grams at birth, but they grow rapidly, gaining about three grams each day. They mature over the course of two years, at which point they weigh approximately 4.5 pounds. Javier Piva Flos/Getty Images   Conservation Status There are approximately 200,000 snowy owls in North America. Despite conservation efforts, these unique owls are now considered to be a vulnerable species. While breeding areas are usually far away from human interference, climate change is impacting the snowy owls Arctic habitat; the number of these birds is on the decline. Relatives of the Horned Owl Until recently, snowy owls were the only member of the genus Nyctea but recent molecular studies showed snowy owls to be close relatives of the horned owls. As a result, taxonomists have moved snowy owls to the genus Bubo. Other members of the genus Bubo include the American horned owls and the Old World eagle-owls. Like other horned owls, snowy owls have ear tufts but they are small and usually kept tucked away. Sources â€Å"Basic Facts About Snowy Owls.†Ã‚  Defenders of Wildlife, 10 Jan. 2019, defenders.org/snowy-owl/basic-facts.â€Å"Snowy Owl.†Ã‚  Audubon, 21 Mar. 2019, www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/snowy-owl.â€Å"Snowy Owl.†Ã‚  National Geographic, 24 Sept. 2018, www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/s/snowy-owl/.

The American Revolution - 993 Words

The topic of the American Revolution is a topic that has been discussed on multiple levels and is extremely well-known, especially within the United States. The details are a little on the generic and basic side but it is at least understood on some level. Most people are aware of the American standpoint, the what, why, how, and when, but there is much more depth to what occurred. The war was obviously between the Americas and the Mother country of Britain, but there were more than just those two parties involved in the war. More people had a stake in the matter. They had many things to gain and just as many, or possible even more to lose. The French played a role in helping the colonists win the revolution but another underrated group of people in the war were the Indians. Another well-known fact is the land issue between the Americans and the Natives. The Americans were constantly butting heads with the Indians and pushing for more land. During the revolution the Natives chose the side of the British for the most part, and as all know, were on the losing side. Would it have mattered in the land issues if they had chosen differently, or would the same outcome have eventually happened? In all honesty, maybe over a longer time frame, the land would have eventually still ended up in the hands of the Americans. The war for the Native Americans was going on long before the colonists decided to fight for their rights and eventually their independence from Britain. There wasShow MoreRelatedThe American Revolution : The Revolution1367 Words   |  6 PagesThe American Revolution Revolutionizes the World It was the first revolution to majorly succeed and change how people saw their countries, it was the American Revolution. 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Then on the other hand bef ore the revolutionary war occurred when the colonists were being over controlled by the British, then in result of the American Revolution the colonists were able to win against the British and become strongerRead MoreThe Revolution Of The American Revolution1582 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"The revolution was effected before the war commenced. The revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people.† - John Adams, 1818 This quote means that the revolution actually took place metaphorically before the actually fighting began. It took place in the emotions and thoughts of the Americans. The Road to Revolution After the Seven Years’ War created a financial problem for Britain The British tried to shoulder some of the financial responsibilities onto the Americas in the form of variousRead MoreThe Revolution Of The American Revolution850 Words   |  4 PagesIn regards to the American Revolution, the point that armed rebellion became inevitable arrived when after nearly five constant years of American colonist protesting. American s had enough and needed to take a stand for the numerous inequalities they were forced to deal with. It was foreseeable that the American Revolution took place due to the unfair taxes that the British were giving Americans. Also, England was not allowing Americans their freedom, along with violence and the political dominanceRead MoreThe American Revolution. 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The upheaval was a primitive modern revolution in which generality traversed for liberty in the statute of law, constitutional privilege and supremacy. Ensuing years of contentionRead MoreThe American Revolution889 Words   |  4 PagesThe American Revolution was one of the most vital events in American History lasting form 1775 to 1783, it effected the nation socially, economically and politically. The American Revolution brought upon many changes in America, and freedom of the nation. The Revolutionary War was a stepping stone to what we are as a nation today, it created both short and long-term effects on the world. When wanting to blame a certain side, the British politicians or the American agitators, several key points leadRead MoreThe American Revolution877 Words   |  4 Pagespeople believe the American Revolution is strictly liberal, in truth it is conservative evidenced by the new British policies, colonial reactions and the examinations of what it means to be conservative vs. liberal. The American Revolution was triggered, by many laws that were passed between 1763 and 1775 that controlled trade and taxes. This legislation caused pressure between colonists and imperial officers, who had made it clear that the British Parliament would not address American complaints relating

Photographic portraiture Essay Example For Students

Photographic portraiture Essay -Recent and Current Trends and Influences in Portrait Photography-Many photographers in the past have had dynamic careers that have influenced many up and coming photographers and will for years to come. Because their work at the time has been preserved in inspirational and innovative images of their eras rock legends and cultural icons, similarities yet progressions can been seen through a comparison of photographers such as David Bailey, Anne Liebovitz and Rankin one of todays most talked photographers. David Baileys career was at a high between the years of 1957 and 1969 and was most famous for his striking black and white images of icons including John lennon and Paul McCartney; Mick Jagger, Jean Shrimpton and the Kray Twins. At this time Bailey was making a revolutionary progression to 35mm cameras at the beginning of the 60s. The SLR camera Bailey purchased in 61 allowed him the flexibility to loosen up the fashion genre. For example on of his early fashion shoots for Vogue Young idea goes west featured Jean Shrimpton in the chaotic urban environment of New York. These photographs epitomized a new street realism and marked a drastic departure from the Static formally posed fashion and portrait photography of the previous decade. Baileys mapping of the 60s was marked by two collections of portraits; David Baileys Box of Pin-ups in 1965 and Goodbye Baby and Amen in 1969. Powerful portraits of musicians including Mick Jagger, Lennon and McCartney reflect the stature of these 60s me dia heroes in these volumes. And actors such as Michael Caine and Marianne Faithful. Along with models Jean Shrimpton and Sue Murray. Baileys portraits are characterized by close cropping, strong lighting and often stark, bare backgrounds; which have given them a dramatic and enduring intensity. With most of his models Bailey had a very close rapport that brought a certain level of intimacy to his photographs, which was unique amongst his contemporaries. Some examples of his work can be seen on page six. In these examples you can clearly see Baileys simple yet distinctive style, the two small photographs of Michael Caine and Mick Jagger clearly show that Bailey has lit the subject with either one or two softboxes from the front or 45 degrees and has also lit the background very strongly to allow the model to stand out more clearly from the background. Baileys photographs seem to be quite contrasting and he uses quite harsh side lighting on Micheal Caine it makes the character appear to be very strong and threatening which may have been Baileys intention. Bailey remains still as active as ever and has continuing importance as a portrait photographer evident in his contemporary photographs of Naomi Campbell, Amber Valetta, Johnny Depp and Ralph Fiennes. Anne Liebovitz whose career has to be renowned for her work for Rolling Stones magazine was spread throughout the years of 1970 to 1990, and alike Bailey she had a very close rapport with many of her models and often caught them in natural off-guard moments. Her portraits were very different from her contemporaries, she very rarely used studio set-ups and even when she did they were unlike and ordinary portraits. Anne tried to capture a side of the celebrities and icons that had never been seen before and often created a surreal looking moment. Her style was very different from Baileys, instead of close cropping and stark backgrounds which was a very well used technique in Baileys studios; she would give every mo del a different personality and look to what the public eye was familiar with. Many of her photographs use the body as well as the face as a means of expression, which is unusual for a portraitist. One of her portraits, which represent the era very well, is one of Arnold Schwarzenegger taken in 1979. It is an excellent representation of the all out obsession with self-maintenance and gym mania that took place in the eighties. In contrast its so different to the portraits in which all you see in a body armour that most individuals seem to need. Annes pictures represent people relating to each other in a non-defensive way; this is only possible because of the close relationships she has with her models. One of the best examples of her work is the last portrait of John Lennon and Yoko Ono. This represents the close relationship she was able to build with her models and also using the foetal position shows her use of the human body as a means of expression, this portrait is very strong graphically and yet emotionally it creates a powerful image by itself. In many of her portraits some of her equipment can be seen, for example: lighting, stands, backdrops she makes the shoots seem casual and make do. Many photographers have tried to import this style in to their work. Anne uses the surroundings in her portraits to represent a side of her models career or personality that has never been seen before. Her subjects range from being on tour with the Rolling Stones to portraits of Bette Midler, Liberace, actress Amanda Plummer, Clint Eastwood and Bruce Springsteen. And recently was the photographer requested to tour with mega group Oasis. Abstract Paragraph EssayA likeness can be seen in all of the talked about photographers work mainly because they were and are very much in the rock and roll scene! Especially Anne Liebovitz and David Bailey, although they worked very differently. David Bailey alike Rankin uses very simple sets and lighting techniques where as on the other hand; Liebovitz may seem to use simple lighting and studio set-ups. Everything is strategically placed and lit, and she is known for her complicated lighting techniques, some may say she is a perfectionist or maybe even an obsessive. Each of these photographers I have talked about are strong and independent characters each of which does not look for approval or praise from their work. They are on personal missions and journeys to see how far their mind will stretch in to the new and never done before. Bibliography: www. Rankin.co.uk, Amateur Photography magazine Photographs Anne Liebovitz 1970 to 1990 National Museum of Photography, film and TV

The Role of Unions in Improving and Disrupting an Organizations Culture Essay Example

The Role of Unions in Improving and Disrupting an Organizations Culture Essay The Role of Unions in Improving and Disrupting an Organization’s Culture Describing and identifying the importance of abstract terms is a difficult task because their meaning rely more on substance than form. For this and other reasons, individuals as well as organizations tend to overlook or underestimate their importance for a successful career and for the effective functioning of an organization. Organizational Culture† is one of those terms, we can’t see it, but we can feel and experience it, and it has a profound impact in the way people behave in an organization. It denotes the attitudes, experiences, beliefs, and values of the work group or team within the organization, which to an extent affect the organization as a whole. All employees whatever their grade is, and whether they are professionals or not, contribute to the culture of an organization by bringing their diverse talents, knowledge, skills, values, and beliefs to the entity. Employees may possess abilities and talents that might enable them to fit into the organization and empower it, partly as a result of socialization, but they might need assistance from others, such as Human Resource Development specialists and Union cooperative efforts, in order to learn the skills that will enable them to play their part in the team, group, or department. The culture of an organization is important not only to individuals but to the organization itself. This makes culture an important part of every organization and union leaders and management need to understand the central role it plays in forming an effective organization. Union understanding of the important role culture play for an organization is essential since the recognition of unions and the labor agreement usually means structural changes to an organization’s policies, practices, strategies, and the environment. According to Neal M. Ashkanasy, author of the book Handbook of Organizational Culture and Climate, more and more practitioners are coming to realize that, despite the best-laid plans, organizational change must include not only changing structures and processes, but also changing the corporate culture as well. We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Unions in Improving and Disrupting an Organizations Culture specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Unions in Improving and Disrupting an Organizations Culture specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Unions in Improving and Disrupting an Organizations Culture specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Unions can play a role in creating and changing an organization’s culture, since they are in a position to provide the workforce with information designed to influence decisions about work practices, rules, preferred behaviors and attitudes, etc. Management as well as staff developers need, therefore, to communicate frequently with trade union officers. Improving organizational culture has become a necessity in todays ever- changing business environment. However, it can be a big challenge for the organization and its members. Managing in a union environment can be frustrating and confusing. Managers in a unionized workplace are challenged to manage effectively within legal and contractual parameters. This make the decision-making process more difficult for managers who must count with the union approval for many decisions and changes that might conflict with the labor agreement. If managers are not flexible in outcome, or are too specialized, then the organization may become too narrowly focused and the motivation and creative thought, a necessary precursor for innovation may be stiffed. Also, although individual ideas are important, strategies for team-working are essential. One of the primary responsibilities of strategic leaders is to create and maintain the organizational characteristics that reward and encourage collective effort (Neal M. Ashkanasy, 10). Individuals should be motivated to work as part of a team sharing a common vision of the direction in which they would like the organization to develop. To this end, unions are one of the most effective institutions that can be used to bring people that share common interests, goals, and principles together and motivate them to work as a team, since the mechanism of the union itself encourages team participation. Today, organizational leaders are confronted with many complex issues during their attempts to generate organizational achievement. A leaders success will depend, to a great extent, upon understanding organizational culture. Paul Clark, author of the book Building More Effective Unions contends that â€Å"Many of the problems confronting leaders can be traced to their inability to analyze and evaluate organizational cultures. † Many leaders, when trying to implement new strategies or a strategic plan leading to a new vision, will discover that their strategies will fail if they are inconsistent with the organizations culture. For example, a CEO, SES, political appointee, or flag officer who comes into an organization prepared to shake the place up and institute sweeping changes, often experiences resistance to changes and failure. These difficulties with organizational transformations arise from failures to analyze an organizations existing culture. According to Franklin Ashby, author of the book Revitalize your Corporate Culture, â€Å"When an organization has a union, most of the culture of the organization is dictated by the union contract, and the on-going relationship with the union. Unless Union cooperation is obtained, little can be done to change the culture of an organization. However, Unions often resist change to protect the interests of their members. One of the strongest cultures in the United States is the United Automobile Workers. Over the years and through many negotiations, they have established work rules that workers and companies must follow. These are now an integral part of the organizational culture of the Big Three Automobile Makers. For example, when competition from Japanese car makers cause the Big Three U. S. utomobile firms a significant loss of market share, the organizational culture of American Auto manufacturers had to be changed. This could be accomplished only through negotiation with the union. Although some labor leaders oppose any change they feel may weaken the union’s position, more and more enlightened labor union leaders are moving from an adversarial to a more cooperative philosophy (Franklin Ashby, 3). According to Paul F. Clark, author of the book Building More Effective Unions, â€Å"Most efforts to change an organization’s culture will meet with some resistance. A systematic approach to change is most effective in meeting such resistance. Many of us are familiar with the slogans, songs, jackets, parades, banquets, and picnics of unions because they are all part of the labor movement. To some they are simply windows dressing, unconnected to the important things that build an effective union. But, in fact, these things are part of a potentially and powerful phenomenon called â€Å"organizational culture† (Paul F. Clark, 10). It is important that unions understand the central role that culture plays in an effective organization and work to build a strong culture consistent with the union as well as the organization’s values, beliefs, and objectives. This is essential to avoid conflict by having two different cultures with different organizational objectives in the same company. Although one general culture might be ideal and best for an organization, subcultures exist and they do not necessarily exist to hurt the overall culture of the organization as long as the culture that involves the common interest of most members is accepted and recognized. The existence of subcultures is normal. In an organization with a strong culture, subcultures created by union members do not cause problems because the overall values and beliefs of the group are well recognized and accepted. If the culture of an organization is week, however, subcultures can override and compete with the overall culture, which can be disruptive to the organization’s culture. In his analysis, Paul Clark mentions that the effectiveness of a culture can be measured by the degree to which that culture and its various elements and subcultures clearly communicate the values of the organization. One of the core values emphasized by unions is the welfare of the collective group. Towards this end unions emphasize the principles of solidarity, unity, and togetherness. One common aspect of union culture that helps to communicate these values is the use of the terms â€Å"brother† and â€Å"sister† to refer to union members (Paul F. Clark, 6). Other values held in great regard by unions are fairness, equity, and justice. Unions help improve an organization’s culture by enforcing these values whenever they are violated or necessary for the welfare of employees. For example, managers often complaint about the tendency of unions to challenge through the grievance procedure many of the disciplinary actions taken by management. However, such challenge simply reflects the value that unions and union members place on due process and the fairness it brings to the workplace. By challenging any questionable management decision, unions are forcing management to evaluate the fairness of every action they take, before they take it. The member-union contract has an impact not only on union attachment, attitudes, and behaviors, but also on how it affects organizational culture. In summarizing the findings of their widely cited book, What Do Unions Do? Freeman and Medoff conclude that â€Å"Unions alter nearly every aspect of an organization’s culture. † The authors suggest that unions exert effects on organizational culture through collective bargaining. The primary effects of collective bargaining are the gains that the union is able to realize at the bargaining table for the employees. For example, extrinsic benefits like wages, job security, and working conditions, are all concerns that have dominated the collective bargaining agenda of North American Unions. Gains in these areas are determined primarily by the union’s ability to acquire and use power in the bargaining relationship. For example, the union wage effect is largely dependent on the ability of the union to achieve monopoly power within an industry. It is important to note that the union effects on organizational culture are also outcomes that emerge though management’s reaction to collective bargaining provisions. Management’s adjustment to the conditions imposed by collective bargaining and the union’s counteraction to managerial action will determine the nature and extent of union effects on organizational culture. The ability of unions to achieve their goals in areas such as wages, job security, and working conditions have important ramifications for organization culture both within the union and within the organization. For example, unions have a direct effect on the level, form, structure, and system of compensation plans. Through effective bargaining unions can improve an organization’s culture by emphasizing and enforcing the values, principles, and beliefs the members of the organization consider important. For example, the union can achieve fairness and equity with wage increases and justice and dignity with provisions for job security and better working conditions. Although these effects wary across industry and individuals, some general conclusion may be drawn. First, and most important, unions raise wages. Estimates of union wage effect wary but in general wage levels in unionized industries are 10 to 20% higher than wages for comparable non-unionized industries (William Holley, 324). Similarly, unions have a positive impact on employee benefits with unionized industries spending more on fringe benefits than comparable non-unionized firms. Job security is another factor through which unions help improves an organization’s culture concern for layoffs. For example, collective agreements often contain clauses that directly influence individual’s job security such as provisions for layoffs, job transfers, and contracting out. The prevalence of such provisions indicates the high priority placed on job security by union members. Based on the Quality of Employment Survey data, union membership was the best predictor of whether individuals would trade a 10% increase in real wages in exchange for increased job security. Unions also increase the security of their members from arbitrary decision making though the provision of grievance systems. Through the implementation of grievance systems with provisions for third-party dispute resolution, unions substantially increase the costs of arbitrary management decisions. As mentioned by Julian Barling, Author of the book The Union its Members, One would expect, and empirical evidence confirms that â€Å"Management decision making in a unionized environment would be more regulated by formal procedures and based on more objective criteria. Other areas in which Union have helped to improve an organization’s culture is through their intensive efforts to improve occupational health and safety in the workplace by advocating for government regulations, negotiating health and safety provisions, and encouraging the formation of labor-management committees to deal with health and safety issues. In additional to the negotiation of clauses dealing with health and safety, unions may also negotiate compensating wage differentials for workers exposed to higher risks. By doing so, they increase the incentive for management to improve working conditions by increasing the cost of dangerous work. Overall, unions substantially increase awareness of health and safety issues in the workplace. In addition to safety and health issues, unions also negotiate contact provisions dealing with a variety of working condition (William Holley, 435). For instance, hours of work, scheduling of rest breaks, and, in some cases, and rate of production. To the extent that unions are successful in negotiating these gains, unionization may have an indirect effect on occupational health and safety. Provisions such as rest breaks, minimization of overtime, and shift scheduling may all affect the risk of on-the-job injury. According to Clive Fullagar, the Neo-Classical Economic Theory suggests that â€Å"Management may react to the increased costs associated with unionization by replacing labor with capital. However, an alternate theory suggests that unionization has â€Å"shock effect† on management, whereby management reacts to unionization by becoming more efficient. † Such increased efficiency may be evidenced by the introduction of centralized, professional human resources functions and increased reliance on formalized decision making. Union involvement in the formulation of management decisions may be seen as usurping the rights of management to run the workplace. On the other hand, collective bargaining maybe e viewed as a way of managing the workplace rather than an abandonment of traditional management prerogatives. In this regard, it should be noted that through their involvement in establishing work rules and organizational policies, unions may have both positive and negative effects on organizational culture. The impact of unions in managerial decision making is seen clearly in the development of personal policies. It is commonly recognized that unions influence the use of seniority as a criteria for promotions and job transfers. Unions also have an effect on hiring decisions. For example, one managerial response to wage premiums maybe to raise the hiring standards of the firm and in particular to place more emphasis on education as a hiring criteria. The presence of a union may result in the implementation of policies that are in the organization’s best interest. Thus, the presence of a union is associated with more efficient managerial decision making. In particular, this increased efficiency is attributable to the formalization of decision making and the substitution of policy for individual judgment as a basis for decision making. As the preceding discussion indicates, unions have substantial effects on organizational culture through the negotiation of specific provisions in the collective agreement. Additional union effects on organizational culture also accrue during the administration of the collective agreement as management and the union adjusts to the new environmental conditions mandated by the collective agreement. Unions improve organizational culture by supporting, developing, and enforcing values, beliefs, attitudes that are of importance to the members of the organization. As a result, this has a direct effect at increasing productivity and performance. Freeman and Medoff have concluded that unions substantially increase the productivity of organizations. That is, after controlling for various organizational characterizes, unionized firms are more productive than their non-unionized counterparts. However, nionized firms are found to be less profitable than non-unionized firms because the increase in productive do not seem to offset the increased costs of unionization. Freeman and Medoff point out that â€Å"The union impact on the firm’s productivity can be explained by two factors. † First, unionization leads to a more stable workforce by reducing voluntary turnover. A direct consequence of this increase stability is the firm’s investment in human resources management. Second, the union effect on productivity provides a conceptual basis for the hypothesis that unionization may have an effect on individual job performance. For example, through more rigorous selection, investment in employee training, and the institution of more professional management practices, an organization attempts to adjust to the cost of unionism by increasing individual job performance. While the end result of such strategies is an increase in firm productivity, the initial effect is plausibly an increase in individual job performance. It is imperative to note that the union’s effect on firm productivity is moderated by the quality of union-management relations. When the industrial relation climate is favorable, unionization is associated with higher firm productivity. Conversely, a poor quality of union-management relations is associated with decreased productivity in unionized firms. The quality of union-management relationships influences the motivation of employees. When the quality of union management relations is poor, the potential for increments in job performance maybe be offset by decreased individual motivation, work stoppages, and work-to-rule campaigns. Perhaps one of the most well documented effects of unions in organizational culture is the reduction in voluntary employee turnover in unionized industries. According to Clive Fullagar, unions help to reduce turnover in two different ways. First, unions increase wages and improve working conditions. These primary union effects make unionized jobs more attractive and conversely reduce the likelihood of finding an equivalent job. The union affects on benefits and particularly the increase in deferred compensation schemes that favor senior workers, contribute to the union effect on turnover. Similarly, benefits based on seniority also help to decrease the voluntary turnover rate. Second, unions reduce turnover by providing individuals with a voice. Through the provision of employee grievance systems, unions provide the individual an alternative to quitting, the opportunity to redress specific dissatisfactions through the grievance system. Unions provide mechanism for individual to express their dissatisfactions and influence their working conditions. The provision of such mechanism reduces the probability that an individual will voluntarily resign his or her position. If unions reduce voluntary turnover by providing voice mechanisms to individuals then these effects may be logically extended to other forms of individual withdrawal from work such as absenteeism. However, unionized firms experience higher absenteeism rates. Therefore, in this sense unions hurt organizational culture. For example, increased sick-leave benefits negotiated during collective bargaining are associated with higher rates of absenteeism. Another ways in which a union can hurt an organizational culture is by causing strain and stress. While not widely researched, there are conceptual reasons to suggest that unions and the practice of industrial relations have consequences in terms of individual stress and strain. First unions negotiate contract provisions that directly affect working conditions. Management may react by implementing more formal policies and standardized job descriptions. The result of such increased formalization may be experienced as a reduction in role ambiguity and increase in role conflict, which are two components of roles stress. The consequences of worker participation in union activities also have an impact on organization performance and various behavioral outputs. Unions provide discontented workers with a participatory forum and a collective voice at the workplace by means of which they may articulate their feelings rather than exiting temporarily through absenteeism or permanently through turnover. Unions encourage member participation making employees feel valuable to the organization. Union organizations have mechanisms such as a written constitution and bylaws that ensure an opportunity for members to participate in the governance of the organization, hold office, attend meetings, vote in elections, or express dissatisfaction with the leadership. Unions help improve an organization’s culture by maintaining some balance between employer and employee’s rights and responsibilities. Although employers and employees share some common interest, each group is motivated by self-interest. The inherent conflict of interest between employers and employees inevitably creates conflict within any employment relationship, which must be managed effectively. Unions rather than an individual are more effective in managing this conflict of interest and creating an enjoyable working environment. The presence of the union formalizes the employee representation activities because employees may file a grievance if they believe the company has violated the terms of the negotiated agreement. If the company employs an accommodation and labor management cooperation strategy, unions can help by cooperating with management rather than the parties having an adversarial relationship. Management and the unions can actively work together to create an organizational climate and a way of operating that will allow employees to participate directly in decisions in their work areas as members of task teams and as members of problem-solving groups. Unions can contribute to companies’ strategic planning and implementation activities which directly affect the organization’s culture. For example, a union can provide input from a clearly defined group of employees, as well as transfer information about corporate plans and direction to those represented employees. The union leaders can help the rank-and-file employees better understand the business plan and lend credibility to the plan. According to our textbook, The Labor Relations Process, â€Å"Unions can help improve an organization’s culture by reducing the employees feeling of alienation which have resulted from the extensive use of machinery in manufacturing operations. Employees might feel alienated because they have lost contact with their own labor when the product they created were taken away from them, thereby reducing their spirit and status or when they became estranged from fellow employees when their work made them too tired and competitive that they were incapable of having authentic relationships. Unions can and do address a possible aspect of employee alienation, namely the employees’ desire to speak their minds without fear of management reprisal. For example, a union typically indicates to its potential members that the employee’s rights to voice their opinions regarding a managerial action are protected by negotiated grievance procedures and disciplinary polices. In conclusion, Unions play a crucial role in improving an organization’s culture. Therefore the union’s members understanding of organizational culture as well as management recognition of the union as a key player in improving organizational culture is imperative. The above examples indicate that failure to achieve organizational change when necessary can be accredited to the lack of management’s understanding about the important role culture plays for an organization. The most important point of this is that such as an organizational culture is made of members that might be union’s members in a unionized firm, and their approval, understanding, and acceptance of any change in their inherent or traditional culture is essential for an organization to operate effectively. Although, the majority of examples and research suggests that unions have more positive impacts in improving an organization’s culture, they can also hurt it if they don’t develop the skills needed for mutual union-management cooperation such as understanding the business and the problem-solving process. They can hurt the organization’s culture if they don’t maintain contact with the membership to better represent members’ interests. Also, if management doesn’t take steps to reorient its view from seeing unions and labor agreements as constrains to recognizing a more cooperative union-management relationship and provides the union with a secure position as the legitimate, permanent representative of the bargaining unit employees. Bibliography Ashby Franklin C. Revitalize Your Corporate Culture: Powerful Ways to Transform your Company. Golf Professional Publishing. Burlington: MA, 1999. Ashkanasy M. Neal, Wilderon Celeste, and Peterson Mark. Handbook of Organizational Culture and Climate. London: New Delhi, 2004. Clark F. Paul. Building More Effective Unions. Cornell University Press. New York: Ithaca, 2000. Julian Barling, Fullagar Clive, and Kelloway Kevin. The Union Its Members: A Psychological Approach. Oxford University Press. New York: Oxford, 1992. Holley William, Jennings Kenneth, and Wolters Rogers. The Labor Relations Process. South-Western. Ohio: Mason, 2005.

Obamas Rhetoric Essay Example

Obamas Rhetoric Essay Barack Obamas rhetorical style is broadly acknowledged to be one of the most outstanding examples of communication strategy in recent political oratory. His political success reinforces the thesis that language is a powerful tool to influence citizens. The relationship between power, discourse and cognition provides the theoretical framework for the present analysis of Obama? s Inaugural Address; a speech which relies on literal meanings, and above all on figurative ones. Using this speech I will demonstrate how metaphor is a powerful strategy since first, it facilitates the understanding of abstract concepts in a short time span; second, it conveys positive images that benefit the orator; and, finally, because the message conveyed is doubly powerful as it works through both auditory and visual channels. EL DISCURSO DE INVESTIDURA DE BARACK OBAMA: METAFORA Y VALORES COMO ESTRATEGIAS PERSUASIVAS PARA CELEBRAR UNA PRESIDENCIA LE DISCOURS D’INVESTITURE DE BARACK OBAMA: METAPHORE ET VALEURS COMME STRATEGIES PERSUASIVES POUR CELEBRER UNE PRESIDENCE We will write a custom essay sample on Obamas Rhetoric specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Obamas Rhetoric specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Obamas Rhetoric specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer RESUMEN: La estrategia retorica de Barack Obama es una de las mas sorprendentes en la oratoria politica mas reciente. Una victoria politica que refuerza la tesis del lenguaje como arma poderosa para influir en los ciudadanos. Las relaciones entre poder, discurso y cognicion constituyen el marco teorico del presente analisis en torno al Discurso de Investidura pronunciado por Obama en su toma de posesion como presidente; un discurso basado en significados literales y, sobre todo, metaforicos. Tal recurrencia mostrara el poder de la estrategia metaforica: Primero, porque la metafora facilita el comprension de conceptos abstractos en un breve espacio de tiempo; segundo, porque transmite imagenes positivas que benefician al orador; por ultimo, porque el mensaje metaforico es doblemente efectivo puesto que funciona a traves de un canal auditivo y otro visual. PALABRAS CLAVES: oratoria politica; poder; estrategia; metafora; cognicion. SUMARIO: 1. Introduccion 2. Procedimiento 3. Funcion antropologica de la metafora en el Discurso de Investidura de Obama 4. Las metaforas belicas, del edificio y el viaje en el Discurso de Investidura de Obama 4. 1. La metafora belica 4. 2. La metafora del edificio 4. 3. La metafora del viaje 5. La retorica de los valores 6. Conclusion RESUME: La strategie rhetorique de Barack Obama est l’une des plus surprenantes de l’art oratoire politique le plus recent. Une victoire politique qui renforce la these du langage comme arme puissante pour avoir de l’influence sur les citoyens. Les relations entre pouvoir, discours et cognition constituent la delimitation theorique de cette analyse autour du Discours d’Investiture prononce par Obama lors de sa prise de possession comme president; un discours base sur des significations litterales et, surtout, metaphoriques. Cette recurrence montrera le pouvoir de la strategie metaphorique: en premier lieu, parce que la metaphore facilite la comprehension de concepts abstraits dans un bref espace de temps; deuxiemement, parce qu’elle transmet des images positives qui profitent a l’orateur; enfin, parce que le message metaphorique est doublement effectif etant donne qu’il fonctionne par l’intermediaire d’un canal auditif et d’un canal visuel. MOTS CLES: art oratoire politique; pouvoir; strategie; metaphore; cognition. SOMMAIRE: 1. Introduction 2. Notre approche 3. Fonction anthropologique de la metaphore dans le Discours d’Investiture d’Obama 4. Les metaphores de guerre, du batiment et du voyage dans le Discours d’Investiture d’Obama 4. 1. La metaphore de guerre 4. 2. La metaphore du batiment 4. 3. La metaphore du voyage 5. La rhetorique des valeurs 6. Conclusion KEY WORDS: political oratory; strategy; metaphor; cognition. power; SUMMARY: 1. Introduction 2. Our approach 3. Embodied function of metaphor in Obama’s â€Å"Inaugural Address† 4. War, construction, and journey metaphors in Obama’s Inaugural Address 4. 1. The war metaphor 4. . The construction metaphor 4. 3. The journey metaphor 5. The rhetoric of the American values 6. Conclusion Fecha de Recepcion Fecha de Revision Fecha de Aceptacion Fecha de Publicacion 15/04/2011 17/10/2011 18/11/2011 01/12/2011 pragmalingiuistica 19 (2011) 44-55 45 Barack Obama’s Inaugural Address: Metaphor and Values as Captivating Strategies to Celebrate a Presidency M. PILAR GUITART ESCUDERO â€Å"The words have been spoken during rising tides of prosperity and the still waters of peace. Yet, every so often the oath is taken amidst gathering clouds and raging storms†. Barack Obama, Inaugural Address, 1-20-2009) 1. INTRODUCTION Language is the only tangible vehicle to access knowledge as well as a powerful tool that influences perceptions, and behaviors (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969). Words that evoke emotion may have a strong psychological impact on the audience (Ullman, 1969). Additionally, discursive genres are embedded in the culture and society in which they are produced. Therefore, any speech with the purpose of persuasion requires the most careful choice of language and contextual adjustment. Thus, political discourse seems to be a clear piece of evidence where rhetorical language is seen in action. This article attempts to analyse Obama’s Inaugural Address as a means of transmitting the American Dream to argue that metaphorical representation is essential to the relationships between word and action. This work will demonstrate that one reason for Obama’s success is that his linguistic choices are conveyed in captivating metaphors which often emerge from the American values. Relationships between metaphor, rhetoric and politics along with methodology used in study will be discussed in the first section. Evidence of metaphorical instances in Obama’s Inaugural Address is shown through the whole article as devices which help connect him psychologically with his audience. The second section explores the connections between Obama’s metaphors and notions related to the human body and its surrounding experience. Section three demonstrates how some metaphors work as cognitive patterns which provide whole semantic fields (Lakoff, 1980: 36; Cuenca Hilferty, 1999: 72): Political activity will be conceptualized as a battle, a construction, and a journey. The last section analyses some of the American values underlying Obamas Inaugural Address, and how, through an extremely empathic speech, the messages conveyed help connect Obama with his audience. 2. OUR APPROACH Persuasive strategies in political rhetoric are found in literal meanings, and also often in figurative. Scholars have agreed that metaphor is frequent and diverse (T. Carver, 2008; Honohan, 2008; Pikalo, 2008; Fridolfsson, 2008), ranging from election time to celebration speeches (Mieder, 2009; Vertessen Landtsheer, 2008). The reasons for such abundance of metaphors lie in the fact that they serve as both powerful learning tools and persuasive devices. A metaphor has learning power because it facilitates the understanding of messages by converting abstract notions into concrete ones (G. Lakoff, 1980; Cuenca Hilferty, 1999). Its persuasive power lies in the subliminal meanings conveyed by unconscious associations of words. Therefore, metaphor is a major means of ideological transmission appealing â€Å"to our emotions (or pathos) through unconsciously formed set 46 Barack Obama’s Inaugural Address: Metaphor and Values as Captivating Strategies to Celebrate a Presidency M. PILAR GUITART ESCUDERO of beliefs, attitudes and values. † (Charteris-Black, 2005: 175) While it projects positive images that benefit the orator, it also conveys negative ones for his adversary. Consequently, it has the power to act as an emotional stimulus whose response may significantly change listeners attitudes and actions. Finally, the message conveyed by metaphor is doubly powerful as it works through both auditory and visual channels at the same time, a verbal message and a mental image. Metaphors embody basic motives and can even appeal to international audiences (M. Osborn, 2009:81). However, metaphors often need to be adapted to the culture in which they are uttered in order to be persuasively effective (J. Aitchison, 1997: 92). Hence, not only do metaphors have a cognitive nature, but they also need to be culturally grounded. For this reason, metaphors may vary under time and space constraints as shown by diverse oratory styles (Charteris-Black, 2005; Mussolf, 2004). The theoretical framework presented in Critical Metaphor Analysis (Charteris-Black, 2004) provides an adequate approach to determine and analyze a specific set of metaphors found in Obama? s Inaugural Address. The cognitive theory of conceptual metaphor mapping is closely related to patterns of source domains usually salient to the audience. This is the reason why political activity is often considered a journey, a war, and a construction. Moreover, understanding social, cultural and ideological values is central to account for certain metaphorical choices. According to Charteris-Black (2004: 12), metaphor is an effective persuasive tool because it â€Å"taps into an accepted communal system of values. † Regarding previous works on metaphor, persuasion and ideology (Charteris-Black, 2004, Guitart, 2005; Lakoff, 2006; Mussolf, 2008), this article will demonstrate that Obama? s choice of metaphors is conscious and often carried out under the influence of a set system of values. A qualitative approach is central to this work. Therefore, it takes into account Praglejazz and E. Semino’s Metaphor Identification Procedure (2007) to determine the metaphoricity which takes place in Obama’s victory speech. MIP is based on a comparison between contextual and basic meanings. If the meaning of a lexical unit can be understood by comparing it to its basic one, the unit can be termed as metaphorical. This method focuses on the distinction between words conveying metaphorical meaning and those which do not according to context as a wide range of words can be considered metaphorical depending on different contexts. For instance, the term crusade is metaphorically intended in Bush’s rhetoric, it is interpreted as literal by many Muslims (Charteris-Black, 2004). 3. EMBODIED FUNCTION OF METAPHOR IN OBAMA’S â€Å"INAUGURAL ADDRESS† As G. Lakoff M. Johnson (1980) stated, people categorize their surrounding reality by establishing boundaries according to their own experience. In metaphorical speech, abstract notions are usually organized in physical objects, spatial orientations, and fixed structures, relating to daily human experience. Therefore, the resulting notions become more familiar, easier to understand, and are processed much faster. The human body is a productive lexical field for metaphorical creation in political discourse as Obama’s Inaugural Address demonstrates. For example, in the following excerpt, â€Å"†¦ these men and women struggled and sacrificed and worked till their hands were raw†¦Ã¢â‚¬  he uses an evaluative image related to the body term hand described as raw, and surrounded by verbs such as struggle, sacrifice, and work. In the next example, he refers to a metaphorical phrase containing pragmalingiuistica 19 (2011) 44-55 47 the words hand and fist, â€Å"To those who cling to power [ ] we will extend a hand if you are willing to unclench your fist. † Likewise, another metaphor combining bodily needs and nature appears as a parallel reference to body and mind, â€Å" ake your farms flourish and let clean waters flow; to nourish starved bodies and feed hungry minds. † Nature and natural phenomena terminology described in different ways, icy currents, rising tides, gathering clouds, water of peace and raging storms, lead us to associations with bad and good times, â€Å"†¦in this winter of our hardsh ip, [†¦], let us brave once more the icy currents, and endure what storms may come. † [†¦] The words have been spoken during rising tides of prosperity and the still waters of peace. Yet, every so often the oath is taken amidst gathering clouds and raging storms. Many inanimate beings are conceptually, and linguistically, treated as humans. In other words, typically human features and actions are assigned to institutions, countries, and organizations. Relevant consequences arise from the analogy embodied in personifications. First, listeners feel a greater identification and a more positive attitude towards the object that has â€Å"become† human. Second, personification conveys more information than literal speech in a shorter utterance, which paradoxically is processed faster. In Obama? Inaugural speech, the word America undergoes a process of personification which results in a captivating metaphor because of its affectionate tone. For example, we read about ? Americas birth? , in other words, an America who is born into a new age of Obama? s victory; we also read about â€Å" a young nation †, and finally we read that â€Å" America is a friend † In the sphere of international politics, Obama? s Address depicts nations as humans, highlighting the need for good relationships in a globalized world: â€Å" reater cooperation and understanding between nations † where â€Å" the world grows smaller † Other abstract entities such as system, crisis, and economy undergo a similar process, â€Å"†¦our system cannot tolerate too many big plans †, â€Å"†¦this crisis has reminded us†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , and â€Å" the state of the economy calls for action†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Finally, one last personification which draws our attention is â€Å"†¦worn out dogmas that [ ] have strangled our politics. † This represents another captivating metaphor because of the negative associations conveyed in the gra phic idea of strangulation. Obama relates prior attitudes of intolerance with the deterioration of the Republican? s political activity. In addition to metaphor, metonym is another commonplace in political communication. The mental process involved in this strategy relates to the substitution of one entity for another without the use of an analogy. For instance, the name of a place is used instead of the activity which takes place there. In Obama? s speech, as in many other political speeches, words that name capital cities such as Washington or Madrid most frequently replace the word government. In turn, government is used instead of an explicit reference to â€Å"the elected and nonelected officials†. In both cases, this substitution takes place between a city and an institution, respectively, to refer to people and their activities. Metaphor and metonym often function together. For instance, the word government can be used for people, and at the same time to refer to human actions assigned to such institution, as stated in the following excerpt from the Inaugural speech, â€Å"The question [ ] is not whether our government is too big or too small, but whether it works whether it helps families find jobs The same process applies to the term country, â€Å"†¦what this country has already done†¦Ã¢â‚¬  as well as institutions, â€Å"†¦our schools fail too many†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Likewise, America becomes the 48 Barack Obama’s Inaugural Address: Metaphor and Values as Captivating Strategies to Celebrate a Presidency M. PILAR GUITART ESCUDERO audienc e, But know this, America † A cause-effect metonym is also used by Obama to designate energy resources instead of its effect, â€Å"We will harness the sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and run our factories. Another metonymic connection has been found to name containers in the place of their content, â€Å"†¦the electric grids and digital lines that feed our commerce and bind us together† instead of referring to energy itself. Synecdoche, a type of metonym that names a part for the whole, or vice versa, can also be traced to one of Obamas statements where the term heart replaces person, â€Å"†¦our ability to extend opportunity to every willing heart†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Likewise, he mentions particular institutions such as schools, colleges, and universities instead of referring to a faulty education system, â€Å" nd we will transform our schools and colleges and universities to meet the demands of a new age. † In sum, the use of these devic es could lead us to believe that the mental processes involved play an essential role as captivating strategies because of the psychological connections these devices build between orator and audience. 4. WAR, CONSTRUCTION, AND JOURNEY METAPHORS IN OBAMA’S INAUGURAL ADDRESS Certain metaphors are known as structural metaphors (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980). They are named structural because they generate new metaphors out of a single semantic field in order to form a whole group of metaphors around the same topic. Some of the major semantic fields as speeches by European and American political leaders have proved are war, construction and journey. For instance, conflict metaphors are associated to M. Thatcher, journey metaphors, to M. Luther King and, construction ones to B. Clinton (Charteris-Black, 2005). This section will outline how this type of representation is used in Obama’s Inaugural Address to create captivating effects. 4. 1. THE WAR METAPHOR In general terms, POLITICAL ACTIVITY IS A WAR is a frequently used metaphor during election time (M. P. Guitart, 2005): Elections usually become battlefields; words turn to weapons; and opponents are enemies. Even when it is an inaugural speech, war lexicon is still evidenced like in the case of Obama? s, â€Å"†¦each day brings further evidence that the ways we use energy strengthen our adversaries and threaten our planet. † In a subtle manner, Obama criticizes the lack of measures taken in the US to save energy. He references the negative consequences of such waste for the country and for their neighboring democracies while he condemns the profit made by other countries. Additionally, messages sometimes switch from a metaphorical meaning to a literal one, as seen in the previous and also in the following excerpt, â€Å"We will not apologize for our way of life, nor will we waver in its defense, and for those who seek to advance their aims by inducing terror and slaughtering innocents, we say to you now that our spirit is stronger and cannot be broken; you cannot outlast us, and we will defeat you. † Through this fragment, listeners evoke â€Å"real† battles in their minds. They join Obama’s courageous leadership in defense of justice, and against those who attempt to frighten them by references to terror and slaughter. The next metaphor â€Å"†¦the fallen heroes who lie in Arlington pragmalingiuistica 19 (2011) 44-55 49 whisper through the ages. We honor them not only because they are guardians of our liberty†¦Ã¢â‚¬  evokes the respect that should be devoted to every soldier killed in Vietnam and buried in the Arlington National Cemetery as they still safeguard the freedom of the North American people. The next rhetorical choice, â€Å"On this day, we gather because we have chosen hope over fear, unity of purpose over conflict and discord † conveys a much gentler tone than other politicians? rhetoric. Obama? style offers more positive meanings compared to fellow politicians and to the traditional linguistic confrontation practice in Europe and in the United States (Charteris-Black, 2005; Mussolf, 2008). For example, as far as Obama’s predecessor? s administration is concerned, Professor W. Fields (2008), expert on presidential rhetoric, posits â€Å"One of the contrasts b etween the two administrations is the care with which Obama uses language†. Indeed, Obama has sought to avoid the controversial phrase â€Å"war on terror†, mainly because of its negative anti-Islamic and anti-Arab associations (Cordesman, 2008: 36). As opposed to the frequent use of â€Å"metaphors of separation†, Obama’s â€Å"metaphor of hopeâ€Å" has been present in his speeches since his Address to the 2004 Democratic National Convention because â€Å"hope is the chance for a better world that can be produced in a society that values both strong personal and communitarian values. † (Rowland Jones, 2007: 442). 4. 2. THE CONSTRUCTION METAPHOR On the opposite extreme of bellicose analogies, the structural metaphor POLITICAL ACTIVITY IS A CONSTRUCTION is also present in Obama’s Inaugural Address. The construction analogy refers to the positive connotations of creation and building. Its contrast to the conflict metaphor is easily acknowledged in the following excerpt, â€Å" to those leaders around the globe who seek to sow conflict, or blame their societys ills on the West know that your people will judge you on what you can build, not what you destroy. † These words are a compelling example of how Obama pursues a more subtle way of communication. He addresses his opponents emphasizing the idea of building as positive and destroying as negative. The notion of construction is often used metaphorically for its anthropological features. In other words, metaphors very often refer to peoples’ everyday customs like getting up, working or cleaning. This is also true in the next passage, â€Å" starting today, we must pick ourselves up, dust ourselves off, and begin again the work of remaking America. † This phrase draws our attention for the several reasons: First, the idea conveyed in the metaphor â€Å" starting today, we must [ ] dust ourselves off † implies the abandonment of certain past habits to adopt new ones, and emerges from the literal meaning of removing dust from furniture. Second, it relates to the reconstruction of America as a consequence of Obama? s victory, â€Å" begin [ ] the work remaking America † In fact, Obama goes further with both metaphors as he applies the positive associations of building to a new era, the new America which has just begun with his election, and with the new policies which, in his own words, â€Å" begin and start today † The last metaphor concerning the idea of construction and its positive associations is â€Å"the levee metaphor† found in the next excerpt: â€Å"it is ultimately the faith and determination of the American people upon which this nation relies. It is the kindness to take in a stranger when the levees break†¦Ã¢â‚¬  In this passage, Obama references to the levees which were destroyed during Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, 2005, and the solidarity showed by many Americans. 50 Barack Obama’s Inaugural Address: Metaphor and Values as Captivating Strategies to Celebrate a Presidency M. PILAR GUITART ESCUDERO Through this metaphor; Obama attempts to convey two fundamental ideas: first, the importance of citizens to their country; second, the solidarity which the American people show towards others when a setback, problem or disaster arises. . 3. THE JOURNEY METAPHOR POLITICAL ACTIVITY IS A JOURNEY is another productive metaphor in political speech (M. P. Guitart, 2005). The main idea conveyed in this metaphor is that political activity is conceived as a journey. Accordingly, Obama’s Address regards life in politics as a journey full of ways, routes, and paths, â€Å"†¦it is the surest route to our commo n good. † He also refers to â€Å"†¦the road that unfolds before us†¦Ã¢â‚¬  as an equivalent of â€Å"a double opportunity. † On other occasions, he depicts life as a progression, â€Å" this is the journey we continue today. Likewise, his references apply to the long distances walked together after having overcome difficulties, â€Å"†¦how far we have traveled. † An evident persuasive effect lies behind the unity that Obama creates with his audience. This captivating strategy of closeness is also evidenced in the next metaphor, â€Å"Our journey has never been one of short-cuts or settling for less. It has not been the path for the faint-hearted [ ] Rather, it has been the risk-takers, the doers, the makers of things some celebrated but more often men and women obscure in their labor, who have carried us up the long, rugged path towards prosperity and freedom. It is the metaphor of a journey where long, rugged paths are taken and shared, abov e all, by every hard-working American whereas short-cuts and easy paths belong to others. This metaphor is an obvious praise towards the people whose subsequent positive emotional reaction is predictable (Santiago, 2010). On the long journey of life itself and life in politics, a forward movement is most likely perceived as positive as in the previous phrase â€Å" path towards prosperity and freedom. †, as well as in the following two, â€Å"†¦we intend to move forward†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , and â€Å"†¦ we seek a new way forward, On the contrary, a backward movement is considered as something negative as shown in the following passage, â€Å"Let it be said by our childrens children that when we were tested we refused to let this journey end, that we did not turn back nor did we falter; and with eyes fixed on the horizon†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Positive and negative associations emerge from cultural meaning. Similarly, Obama employs the positive associations of the word future re inforced by the ideas conveyed in the combination of the terms peace and dignity. At the same time, he mentions â€Å"the weakest†, women and children, in a way that everyone feels included and important, â€Å"†¦every man, woman and child who seek a future of peace and dignity†¦Ã¢â‚¬  As opposed to the notion of light, the idea of darkness is a negatively associated determinant as in the phrase â€Å"†¦our darkest hours†¦Ã¢â‚¬  to convey people? s suffering metaphorically. J. Darsey (2009) states that the potency of Obama’s rhetoric lies in the concurrence of two metaphorical journeys, his personal journey and America’s journey, especially concerning the issue of race. In this manner, the Inaugural Address represents a personal victory and communal victory, where both journeys coincide and conclude with the first Afro-American elected president of the United States of America. pragmalingiuistica 19 (2011) 44-55 51 5. THE RHETORIC OF THE AMERICAN VALUES Politics and persuasion have been closely related since ancient Greece, and the role of Aristotles ethos, pathos and logos still remains central to political discourse. Accordingly, Obamas rhetoric can be characterized as extremely empathic. In other words, he capitalizes on the appeal of ethos because he addresses his audience in a positive and courteous manner that the nation easily identifies with his views (Charteris-Black, 2005; Santiago, 2009; C. Steel, 2009). As far as Obama’s â€Å"A More Perfect Union† speech is concerned, G. Lakoff (2008) points out that itâ€Å"works via the emotional structure built into the speech and into our national ideals. † His rhetorical success can be traced in a set of particular values which G. Lakoff (2009) called â€Å"The Obama Code†. In this way, his Inaugural Address often references values conveyed in words such as responsibility, unity, caring, hope and loyalty among others. Additionally, the original values stated by the Framers of the American Constitution are the most important issue in the US political life according to G. Lakoff. Thus, from the very beginning of the Inaugural Address, Obama stresses his link to the Framers of the Constitution by saying, â€Å"I stand here today [ ] mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors. † Moreover, through the use of empathic forms of address such as â€Å"We the People Obama relates the importance of loyalty to both American national forbearers, and the founding documents of the US, â€Å"†¦because We the People have remained faithful to the ideals of our forbearers, and true to our founding documents. † Signatories of the Declaration of Independence and drafters of the US Constitution are present ideologically as a driving force for the co untry, and linguistically as a metaphorical construction as shown in the next excerpt, â€Å"Our Founding Fathers, faced with perils we can scarcely imagine, drafted a charter to assure the rule of law and the rights of man, a charter expanded by the blood of generations. Those ideals still light the world, and we will not give them up for expediences sake. † This powerful image relates to dangerous work (charter full of perils) carried out by the Founding Fathers, and supported by the suffering and death (blood) of many courageous people. Consequently, such ideals are encouraging (light) and unforgettable. Another value referenced is a renewed notion of the American democracy, related to individual and, above all, social responsibility. A type of democracy which takes care of others as a way of â€Å" acting to make oneself, the country, and the world better because everybody deserves â€Å". protection and equal empowerment † from a moral government. Referring to the concept of framing, Obama has certainly given a renewed meaning to this word (D. Olive, 2008: 305). As expressed by Obama on CNN (2008), it implies â€Å"caring for the other† versus â€Å"extreme individualism†. Although emphasis is placed on societal respon sibility, personal responsibility is also necessary. In this way, Obama disarms the conservative criticism on liberals placing responsibility on the government and none on the individual (C. Rowland J. M. Jones, 2007: 441). Union is another value emphasized by Obama. M. S. Boyd (2009: 78) considers that â€Å"an all-encompassing message of unity [ ] makes his rhetoric more persuasive. † It is an idea of union as equivalent of inclusiveness, which applies to the issues of race and religion. Historically, race has been one of the hardest political issues to address in the United States. As 52 Barack Obama’s Inaugural Address: Metaphor and Values as Captivating Strategies to Celebrate a Presidency M. PILAR GUITART ESCUDERO Sharpley-Whiting (2008: 132) suggests, Obama’s speech on framing the race issue is a model which uses not only literal terms, but also metaphorical language. On the one hand, Obama deals with it as something that has already been overcome through his election as the following excerpt shows, â€Å"This is the meaning of our liberty and our creed why men and women and children of every race and every faith can join in celebration across this magnificent mall, and why a man whose father less than sixty years ago might not have been served at a local restaurant can now stand before you to take a most sacred oath. On the other hand, the next one indicates that he believes there is still more work to be done. This thought is conveyed by the tasting of â€Å"the bitter swill† which refers to racism as a â€Å"dark chapter† in history. Obama also refers to racism with another compelling image, â€Å"the lines of tribe shall soon dissolve†. This metaphor reminds American people that racism, which has created hate and divided people, will be soon eradicated, â€Å"†¦and because we have tasted the bitter swill of civil war and segregation, and emerged from that dark chapter stronger and more united, we cannot help ut believe that the old hatreds shall someday pass; that the lines of tribe shall soon dissolve;† As for religious values, Obama wants to make clear that every creed is welcomed in the US, â€Å"We are a nation of Christians and Muslims, Jews and Hindus and non-believers. We are shaped by every language and culture, drawn from every end of this Earth;† In that way, a broad cultural scope of the audience could be emotionally touched in a positive manner. He praises the diverse religions, cultures, and languages in a more effective way through the metaphorical image of the â€Å"patchwork heritage†, â€Å"For we know that our patchwork heritage is a strength not a weakness. † Emphasis on particular religious references may not be politically successful depending on cultural context. In the case of the Inaugural Address, overt references to Obama? s religious faith, such as â€Å"Gods grace upon us† and â€Å"the knowledge that God calls† clearly plays to the political narrative of the US. The Christian religious background that has long influenced in the congregations of powerfully effective preachers becomes present in B. Obama? s speeches (Higgings, 2009). Indeed, he has a particular rhetoric training based on the black American church, which captured the rhetorical tradition of educating people through sermons (Davidson, 2009). The following excerpt from the Inaugural Address reminds us of a religious sermon with explicit references to God and the Scriptures, â€Å"†¦in the words of Scripture, [ time has come to reaffirm our enduring spirit; to choose our better history; to carry forward that precious gift, that noble idea, passed on from generation to generation: the God-given promise that all are equal, all are free, and all deserve a chance to pursue their full measure of happiness. † Through several parallelisms such as â€Å" to reaffirm our [ ] to choose our †, â€Å" that precious gift, that noble idea † and â€Å" all are equal, a ll are free, and all deserve † the audie

buy custom Environment Protection and Sustainable Development

buy custom Environment Protection and Sustainable Development Environment Protection and Global Warming Introduction The environment is an essential part of human existence and people are required to protect the environment for future generations as part of sustainability. They have to take care of the environment even as they rely on its resources in their daily lives. However, the global warming debate has not lacked controversy as different ecologists come up with diverse perspectives on the actual nature of climatic changes. Admittedly, global warming has massively caused diverse changes to the environment, and this has led to the development of differing perspectives on its actual nature. In some quarters, human beings have been blamed to be the sole contributors to global warming. Other ecologists affirm that human beings cannot be solely blamed for the rampant global warming since it is a natural occurrence that has been in existence from time immemorial. The different perspectives raised on the nature of global warming have necessitated further research on global warming with a view to establishing the truth behind this disastrous happening. Other ecological perspectives on global warming relate to the actual effects on global warming on the Earth. Some believe that global warming is taking a toll on Earth a high rate while others opine that the real effects of global warming are bound to be felt centuries after now. It is vital for humans to gain an in depth understanding of their own environment and factors that might contribute to its degradation. This will be vital in the understanding of the association between human activities and global warming that has been the bone of controversy around the globe.

Introduction to Organisations and Management Essay - 7

Introduction to Organisations and Management - Essay Example The labour force is the one of the most crucial resources for a business organisation and its productivity depends on the organisational culture, structure, leadership, motivation, communication etc. Therefore, management has to take these necessary factors into account for bringing enhancement in productivity level contributed by the labour force. Traditionally, the business owners used to perceive the employees’ related expenses as an added cost of the company; whereas, as per the post-modern organisational concepts, the managements have realised the employees as vital investments for a company which will have return in future. Therefore, the nature structure and process of for completing a task has changed significantly in comparison to the earlier periods (Sole and Costa, 2001, p.2-3). Dodgson, Gann and Salter have identified the two paradigm of managements based on traditional and modern concept. The following the table depict the old paradigm of the managements and the c hanged paradigm of management. Table 1: Old and New Paradigm of Management (Source: Dodgson, Gann and Salter, 2008, p.42) As per the above table, it can be observed that the organisation in the post-modern age become very flexible and growth oriented. The organisations that have successfully understood and incorporated these changes are successful in an industry in comparison to companies following old paradigm of management (Dodgson, Gann and Salter, 2008, p.42-43). This paper will attempt to discuss organisation management of the separate companies i.e. Watsons Engine Components and H & M Consulting based on two case studies. The paper will focus on comparison of the certain areas of the both companies through analyses by using models and theories. The major areas relating to organisation management of the two companies will be organisational design and structure, teams and team working, approach to leadership and management, and approach to leadership and management. 2. Organisat ional design and structure The first step in the successful managing organisation is to create a healthy and smooth management decision making process which is crucial for achieving the organisational growth. Senior and Fleming has described that â€Å"the structure of an organisation is the formal way of identifying who is taking responsibility for what; who is to execute authority over who; and who is to be answerable to whom† (Senior and Fleming, 2009, p.78). Therefore, the organisation structure mainly focuses on the process of the decision making and it involves the top managements who are responsible for taking critical management decisions. For designing a growth oriented organisation, a favourable organisation structure is mandatory and each of the top level management must identify the plays their responsibility considering prevailing scenario for achieving the best possible outcome. Mcshane and Travaglione have identified two fundamental essentials for developing or ganisational structure. These two fundamental requirements are division of labour and coordination. The division of labour is helpful in shaping the specialized skills and coordination means the relationship status among the employees and top level managements. The coordination can be achieved through â€Å"Informal communication†, â€Å"Formal hierarchy†

American Art Education in 1980s Through Today (2012) Research Paper

American Art Education in 1980s Through Today (2012) - Research Paper Example The move to institute uniform art education program addressed issues such as teaching materials, teachers training, curriculum guide, and books among other issues. Previously, art education in America did not address issues like teacher training, which influence the system adopted by teachers in teaching art education. In 1980s, art curriculum for K-12 focused on progressive education and self-expression. Through this education, American technology education on art was founded, which is based on the cultural industrial education history (Foster 2). This focus addressed the need to develop art talent in children while nurturing their natural abilities. Art teachers taught painting, sculpture, drawing, ceramics, and other forms of art skills. The result of this approach was quite impressive. Many children were able to grasp the skills and produce aesthetic work. Another notable thing with revising of the art education curriculum in 1980s is that it revitalized art education. Art educat ion looked at history, traditional systems, and broader aspect of art to make art education interesting to pupils and the teachers. The 1980s curriculum stressed on art making while blending it with studies of art history, aesthetics, and criticism. The art education curriculum of 1980s did stress on visual art education. ... This argument led to the push for more realistic studies in art over the formal system. Notably, art education in 1990s has emphasized the need for visual art in all aspect of art education (Mary 5). Curriculum developed to cater for the needs of pupils and students in post primary schools address current issues. For instance, visual art stresses on current events or realities. In other words, the curriculum does not stress on abstract art. The 1990s art education curriculum identified the need to incorporate place based art education. This is a reform in art education since it exempts traditional aspect of art education in previous decades. Another important observation about art education in 1990s is that art education incorporated other disciplines such as history, current environmental events among others in the art curriculum (Keyon 2). Scholars and lovers of art argued that this approach gave the learner the ability to use art to solve current issues in the society. For instanc e, music art education takes place in special classes while addressing current events in the society. In 1990s, art curriculum has developed various degree programs in art, which address individual needs (Mary 7). Other than professional development programs introduced in 1990s, art studies have created room for students to choose from a wide range of programs. Art education development led to the visual culture experienced today in art schools. Educators and stakeholders in art emphasized on the use of technology in visual art. For instance, National Standard, which was introduced in 1995 as per the California Teaching Standards has become a top producer in weld wire and several industrial wire

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Human Development- Psychological and SocialConsequences of Obesity - Term Paper Example evelopment, this study will first discuss basic information about obesity followed by discussing the psychological and social consequences of obesity. After discussing the factors that contributes to high rate of obesity, some of the recommended ways on how obese individuals can effectively control their weight will be tackled in details. Obesity is defined as â€Å"an excess of body fat that frequently lead to a significant impairment over a person’s health and longevity† (House of Commons Health Committee, 2004). In general, a normal weight is computed using the Body Mass Index (BMI) wherein the normal range for an adult should be between 18.5 to less than 25 (BMI 18.5 to 25 kg/m2). BMI measurement between the ranges of 25 to less than 30 (BMI 25 to 30 kg/m2) is considered overweight and BMI measurement that exceeds 30 (BMI ≠¥ 30 kg/m2) is considered obese. The application of BMI method is computed based on the height of a person and age including the waist circumference. Based on the computation result, obesity can be classified either as: (1) Class I (BMI 30 to 34.9 kg/m2); (2) Class II (BMI 35 to 39.9 kg/m2); and (3) Class III (BMI ≠¥ 40 kg/m2) (Berg, 2003; NHLBI, 1998). (See Appendix I – Body Mass Index on page 20) There are quite a number of techniques that can be used in measuring body fat. Among these techniques include the use of bioelectrical impedance, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, and the total volume of the body’s water content (Berg, 2003). Since these methods are quite impractical to use, medical practitioners simply adopt the BMI method. Aside from the use of BMI method, medical practitioners can also use the formula â€Å"weight in pounds divided by height in inches squared multiplied by 703 or weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared† (Berg, 2003). Obesity is a serious health problem since it could lead to negative affects related to a person’s physical health, emotional well-being, and psychosocial functioning

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Different Approaches Of Completing Tasks English Language Essay Culture is the continuum within which all communication takes place. Communication needs a certain platform shared by the sender and the receiver. Culture is the platform which makes sharing of cultural codes, values, icons, and symbols possible and meaningful. The medium of communication is after all a system of cultural codes that the sender borrows to express his/her ideas. The receiver must understand these codes in terms of the culture from which they have been borrowed and it is only then that s/he would derive maximum sense from it. Culture plays a major role by adding significance to apparently arbitrary conventions. Cultural conventions determine the way we communicate, how we communicate and what we communicate. If the conventions are broken, communication suffers a disjunction and there is great scope for ambiguity. Familiarly with the cultural codes enhances communication skills and allows people in that cultural context to exchange massages that are clear and more complete. Different culture-specific cues are called cultural variables. These bring in the social and cultural variations in the way we talk, dress, and conduct business, or even how we conduct ourselves. Cross-cultural communication is a field of study that looks at how people from differing  cultural  backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they Endeavour to  communicate  across cultures. UNDERSTANDING CULTURAL DIVERSITY Different cultural contexts bring new communication challenges to the workplace. Even when employees located in different locations or offices speak the same language there are some cultural differences. In such cases, an effective communication strategy begins with the understanding that the sender of the message and the receiver of the message are from different cultures and backgrounds. Fundamental Patterns  of Cultural Differences: Different Communication Styles Different Attitudes towards Conflict Different Approaches of Completing Tasks Different Decision-Making Styles Different Attitudes towards Disclosure Different Approaches to Knowing As I work for a multinational IT company and have been transferred to Japan for five years on a project- I have to gather information as to how to avoid problems of cross-cultural communication for my successful stay in Japan. There are several ways to become knowledgeable about the culture of Japan and one of them is through information available on the Internet. I would also like to read books on Japanese culture, etiquette, food habits and about verbal and non verbal communication. Some basic features of Japanese culture gathered from different sources: Harmony is the basic philosophy of the Japanese in family and business matters and in society as a whole.   They value politeness, personal responsibility and working together for the group and society, rather than the individual good.   In their view, working in harmony plays a pivotal role in working meaningfully and productively. As the Japanese strive are group dependent, they depend on facial expression, tone of voice and gesture to express them what someone feels. They usually rely on non-verbal messages more than the spoken words.  Frowning while someone is speaking is termed as a sign of disagreement.   Inhaling through clenched teeth, tilting the head, scratching the back of the head, and scratching the eyebrow are watched closely. Staring into another persons eyes, particularly that of a senior person, is held as disrespectful. In any social event, the elder persons are served first. Since Japanese think that turning down someones request results in embarrassment and loss of face to the other person, if the request is not agreeable, they will say, its inconvenient or its under consideration.   http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQYGN3m_u_JzIijBzN6FUnryOIscnrvgKeifwp_a9md3z4glIm1 Knowing these key Japanese customs, Ill get closer to the locals and representatives of different business groups of Japan: 1. Addressing someone with due respect: For visitors like me a simple inclination of the head or an attempt at a bow at the waist would be a gesture of respect. 2. Manners while on dining table: If I am in a dinner party and receive drinks, I must wait before raising the glass to my lips. After everyone is served, and someone takes the lead, I must raise my drink, and say, kampai! (Cheers!). When I receive a wet cloth at Japanese restaurants, which is a common practice, I must use this to wash my hands before eating. Slurping noodles or making loud noises while eating is acceptable and reflects that the food is delicious. 3. No Tips Please: To tip someone in any situation is frowned upon as it is termed as insulting. 4. Chopsticks: One must learn to use chopsticks for taking lunch or dinner. 5. Visiting Homes and Houses: One has to take off ones shoes at the entrance to any home, and most businesses and hotels. Usually a rack is provided for keeping shoes. 6. Masks: Sterilized masks are generally used by salary men, office ladies, and municipal workers to protect other people from their germs. 7. Conformity: Drawing attention to oneself is a taboo. One must not blow ones nose in public, avoid eating while on the go and speak on mobile phone in crowded public areas. 8. Speaking English: Japanese generally assume the foreign visitor as a native English speaker until one proves otherwise. Although one may speak some or fluent Japanese, the default language of choice is English. Many Japanese still insist on using their own English language ability, however limited, to converse with foreign visitors. 9. Safety: Japanese generally warn tourists to be safe in their travels, to take care of their belongings. However, advise not to worry, nothing can go wrong, nothing will be stolen. APPEARANCE CODE One must dress to impress. For men, they must wear dark conservative attire. Business suits are most suitable. Shoes should be easy to remove, as one will be expected to do so quite often. One must avoid using large hand gestures, unusual facial expressions and any unusual movements. OK sign should be avoided; in Japan it means money. Pointing in not acceptable. One must not blow ones nose in public. Personal space is valued. A smile can have double meaning. It can express either joy or displeasure. The Japanese are not uncomfortable with silence. http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSR_EtxFTFJt0dtqajoy3IXY5N66m0sqhI8fmVqOgvF3VEZSSTDo755q_J1 BEHAVIOUR CODE Drinking is an integral part of Japanese culture. It is a way to relieve business stress. One must never pour a drink oneself, allow someone else to do it. Generally most business entertaining is done in restaurants or bars after business hours. Let the host order the meal and pay. Japanese generally refrain from entertaining in the home. If one is invited to the home of Japanese host, he should consider it a great honour and express gratitude. If one has to take ones host out, he must insist upon paying. It is generally acceptable to slurp ones noodles as it shows the food was delicious. Japanese term number 14 as bad luck, because in Japanese it sounds like the word hush-hush, pronounced like the word for death. Both business and personal gifts are happily accepted. But the gifts must be wrapped and should be given and accepted with both hands. Gifts should be given at the end of a visit. http://t2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQfkdiWB0n9HpIMdoYngLmbYubELFaKHkAkSiR00A3gFU1RCyAh THERE ARE 10 STRATEGIES THAT HELPS IN MAKING CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATIONAL EFFECTIVE http://www.nynj-phtc.org/images/top10-400-white.jpg JAPAN RELIGION http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSP88Ii63ne9lM-6jI2gkVzEpMCM1Gyx7ktQcOJd43yRZlfP07W http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQmU1Hs97UlNqQ91YB6J20CpUUBNREzQ6kT26yD2-ptS7tpH_H3